Vostok Antarctic Base
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For items uses, see Vostok .
Vostok Antarctic base
View from the Vostok station in 2004.
Coordinates 78 ° 27 ’52 “South
106 ° 50 ’14 “East
Country Russia
Creation 1957
Geolocation on the map: Antarctica
December 16, 1957 the second expedition to Antarctica established a Soviet scientific station at Vostok. It has operated continuously for over 37 years. The station was temporarily closed in January 1994. Today the station has become a place of international cooperation used both by researchers Russian, American and French.
On 21 July 1983, the temperature record the lowest ever recorded at the surface of the earth has been raised: -89.2 ° C 1 . The temperature would be decreased even to -91 ° C during the winter of 1997 but this has not been confirmed by scientists.
In 1996 the Russian and British scientists discovered the largest lake under the ice in the world, Lake Vostok , beneath the scientific station. Lake Vostok is located 4000 meters beneath the Antarctic ice sheet covers an area of 14,000 sq km .
Description
The station is located at an altitude of 3844 meters above sea level This is the most isolated scientific station on the Antarctic continent. A distance of 1 253 km separates the South Pole and the geographic nearest coast is only 1 260 km . In winter, it is virtually impossible to get to the station and its inhabitants can then rely on any outside help. Its location near the south magnetic pole (which has since moved) made it an ideal location to study the variations of the geomagnetic field. Other scientific studies in the fields of geophysics, climatology and medicine are made. The resort is home to 25 scientists normally in summer but that number drops to 13 in winter.
Climate [ change ]
The world’s lowest temperature was recorded at Vostok July 21, 1983: -89.2 ° C 1 and hcg diet plan the station is known as the cold pole of the Southern Hemisphere. But you can be sure that the air temperature is lowered below the highest points in the Antarctic ice sheet since the temperature decreases with altitude. During the long polar night, the average temperature of air is -65 ° C while during the brief summer it is -30 ° C . The hottest temperature recorded at Vostok is equal to -12.2 ° C (January 11, 2002). The lowest monthly temperature was recorded in August 1987 with -75.4 ° C .
Vostok has an EF-type climate (Polar Ice Sheet of) with the heat record -12.2 ° C 1/11/2002 and the record low as -89.2 ° C on 07/21/1983. The average annual temperature is -54.1 ° C .
Month January February March April May Jul. Jul. Aug. September October November December year
But factors other than temperature will seriously strain the human body.
extreme dryness of the air;
a wind whose average speed is equal to 5 m / s ( 18 km / h ) but sometimes up to 27 m / s ( 97 km / h );
lack of oxygen due to the altitude (3844 meters). Because the oxygen density decreases as one approaches the poles, the oxygen density at Vostok is comparable to the density of oxygen at an altitude of 5000 meters to a more temperate latitudes;
partial pressure of gas different from that to which man is ordinarily used;
a higher ionization of the air;
a deficit of air CO 2 which causes disturbances in the mechanisms of breathing;
a polar night that lasts three months of the year.
Time to adapt the body to such extreme conditions can last from one week to two months and is accompanied by headaches, a feeling of suffocation and pain in the ears, nose bleeds, of sudden rise in blood pressure, sleep loss, loss of appetite, vomiting and weight loss of 3 – 5 kg .
Drilling of the ice sheet
Changes in the concentration of CO 2 and atmospheric temperatures, supplemented by data from Vostok EPICA
In the 1970s, the Soviet Union effected in a series of Vostok drilling at a depth between 500 and 952 meters . These holes were designed to study the content of oxygen isotope of air trapped in ice caps and allowed to show that these caps contain ice dating from the last glaciation at a depth greater than 400 meters . denver car accident attorney Then three other holes were made. Hole 3G reached a final depth of 2,202 meters in 1984, the hole 4G reached a final depth of 2,546 meters in 1990 and finally the hole 5G reached the depth of 2755 meters in 1993. After a brief hiatus during the winter 1995 drill hole 5G resumed in 1996 and was stopped at a depth of 3623 meters at the request of the scientific research in Antarctica who expressed concern of possible contamination Lake Vostok. The study of ice core extracted by drilling allowed to know what the past climate over a long period of 420,000 years . For many years this was the only ice core data which covered several glacial cycles. But in 2004 the ice core from the EPICA allowed to know the past climate over a period of time even longer. In 2003 but was able to resume drilling was stopped at an estimated distance of only 130 meters of Lake Vostok.
Although the Vostok drilling reaches a depth of 3623 meters the final end of the core is more information on past climate because it is ice refrozen from Buy Phen375 the waters of Lake Vostok. In fact only the first 3310 meters of the ice sheet contains operational information for the knowledge of paleoclimate.
The drilling resumed in January 2012, reached Lake Vostok 5 February 2012.
Vostok (Antarctic station)
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The current version of the page auto transport while not tested , and experienced participants may differ significantly from the version screened December 9, 2011; checks require 11 edits .
This term there are other uses, see East (disambiguation) .
The station “Vostok”
Postcard “30 years of the Soviet Antarctic research station Vostok”
Vostok Station – a former Soviet and now station. This is only used by Russia at the present time, the inland Antarctic research station.
Named in honor of a sailing sloop ” Vostok “, one of the ship Antarctic Expedition 1,819 – in 1821′s .
Geographic coordinates: 78 ° 28 ‘lat. sh. 106 ° 48 ‘east. d (G) (O)
A unique research station Wire Cart Covers ” Vostok-1 “was founded December 16 1957 V. S. Sidorov , who later was chief of the station several times.
The thickness of the ice station at 3700 m
Content [ remove ]
1 Climatic conditions
2 Location of station
3 The scientific activity on the “East”
4 In popular culture
5 Facts
6 See also
7 Links
Climatic conditions
Climatic conditions in the vicinity of the station one of the most difficult (if not the worst) on the Earth :
The strongest cold . Station area is characterized by very low temperatures throughout the year. It registered the lowest temperature on the planet: -89,2 ° C ( 21 July 1983 ) [1] . The warmest summer day at Vostok station for the time of its existence remains a day of 16 December 1957 , the Then the thermometer registered 13.6 below zero [2] . The area became known as the Earth’s Pole of Cold.
Almost zero humidity.
Average annual wind speed of about 5 m / s, maximum 27 m / sec.
The height of the station – 3488 meters above sea level , causing an acute shortage of oxygen . Because of the low air temperature in the vicinity of the station, its pressure decreases with height faster than at mid-latitudes, and it is estimated that the oxygen content in the atmosphere in the East is equivalent to an altitude of five thousand meters.
Increased ionization of the air.
The partial pressure of gases in the air there is different from that of the usual for us to air.
The lack of carbon dioxide in the air, which is expected to lead to failure in the mechanism of regulation of respiration.
The polar night lasts 130 days a year.
Acclimatization to such conditions lasts from one week to one or two months and is accompanied by dizziness and flashing eyes, pain in the ears and nose bleeding, feeling of suffocation and Storage Bins sudden increase in pressure, loss of sleep and decreased appetite , nausea, vomiting , pain in joints and muscles , loss of weight from three to five (known cases to 12) pounds .
The average temperature in the warmest months – December and January – below -30 ° C, which is equivalent to the cold Siberian winter. The average temperature of the coldest month – August – is -68 ° C, sometimes drop below -70 ° C. For comparison, in January 1892 in the Verkhoyansk (the coldest ever observed a month at an average temperature in Russia) had an average temperature of -57.1 ° C [3] .
Precipitation is almost falls. Average annual rainfall – only about 4.5 mm, equivalent to the chiropractic marketing total lack thereof.
Climate Vostok
Rate January February March April May June July August Sen October November December Year
Location of station
East
The station “Vostok”
Research station “Vostok” is located in the heart [ citation needed 30 days ] of the Antarctic continent, at a distance of 1253 km from South Pole and 1260 km from the nearest sea coast. To get to the station during the winter is almost impossible, and hence the polar can not count on help from outside. Delivery of cargo to the station is carried by air (in summer, relatively warm period) and the caterpillar tractor-train (in the rest of the time) from the station of ” peace . ” More difficult delivery in this manner described Vladimir Sanin in his books “New to Antarctica” and “72 degrees below zero.”
“East” is located near the South magnetic pole of the Earth and is one of the most suitable places for the study of changes in the Earth’s magnetic field. Usually at the station during the summer there are 25 people – scientists and engineers. In winter, their numbers reduced to 13.
Scientific activities at the “East”
More than forty years of Russian specialists are conducting studies of hydrocarbon and mineral resources and reserves of drinking water shall as well as special medical research , are studying changes in climate , the study of ” ozone hole “problems of increasing water level in the oceans, etc.
Here in the mid -1990s , as a result of drilling of glacial deposits (initially termoburovymi shells, and then electro-shells on the carrying cables) jointly drill teams of the Leningrad Mining Institute and the AARI , it was discovered a unique relict Lake Vostok (largest subglacial lake in Antarctica.) The lake is located under the ice sheet auto insurance quote thickness of about 4000 m and has a size of approximately 250 × 50 km. The estimated area of 15.5 thousand km ². The depth of more than 1200 m
We developed draft study of the lake.
In popular culture
In the film, Whiteout (2009), the main character in one episode gets to the station “Vostok”, the staff of the plot which was evacuated during the winter.
Some facts
The device is a toilet at the station “Vostok” (according to the memoirs of Yuri Senkevich ): During the ice is a cylindrical recess with a diameter of 1 m and a depth of 5 m, mounted on top of it a standard “house.” At recess installed steel round frame with the axis of the middle, which turns on its axis corresponding to the diameter of the steel disk. Above the frame, put the disc seat. excrement falling on the disk, and freeze. The duties of the assistant station included cleaning toilets. It happened this way: frozen feces crowbar broke into small pieces, and then drive rolled over on its axis, and dropped the contents of the broken ice in the cylinder. The disc is recorded with the back of the former. After some time, the cleaning process was repeated. When a cylindrical hole filled with ice, then transferred to a new toilet seat, where the same pre-drill the same design. It is worth noting that later became the unit closest to the toilets to the standard city. At the station there are 3 toilets (in radiodome, diesel power plant, a dining room)
On the Denver Divorce Lawyer night of 13 April 1982 in a fire is completely out of order the main and backup diesel generators, and the station remained de-energized. 20 people for 8 months had a heroic winter, warming homemade stove on diesel fuel, while in the Peace did not come to the sledge-track train with the new diesel-electric propulsion.
Climate ( Greek. κλίμα (klimatos) – the slope of [1] ) – a long-term treatment of weather , characteristic of the area due to its geographical position.
The animation of seasonal changes, especially the snow cover during the year
Climate – a statistical ensemble of states through which the system: the hydrosphere → lithosphere → the atmosphere for several decades. Under the climate is commonly understood as the average value of weather over a long period of time (a few decades) that is the climate – the average weather . Thus, the weather – it is the instantaneous state of some parameters ( temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure ). Deviation of forecasts from the norm can not be regarded as climate change, for example, very cold winter does not Bankruptcy mean climatic cooling. For the detection of climate change needs a significant trend in the characteristics of the atmosphere over a long period of time about ten years.
Content [ remove ]
A climatic zones and types of climate
2 Methods of study
Three climatic factors
4 The influence dui attorney chicago of climate and climate change on natural and human systems
5 See also
6 Note
7 References
8 Links
Climate zones and types of climate
Monthly average surface temperature from 1961 to 1990 . This is an example of how the climate varies depending on the location and time of suspension lift kits year
Climatic zones and types of climate change significantly in latitude, from the equatorial zone and ending with a polar, but climatic zones are not the only factor that is also an important influence proximity to the sea, the system of circulation of the atmosphere and the height above sea level.
Brief description of the climates of Russia:
Arctic. t January -24 … -30, t … 2 Summer 5. Precipitation – 200-300 mm.
Subarctic (60 ° N). summer t … 12 4. Precipitation of 200-400 mm.
Moderately continental. t January -4 … -20, t … July 12 24. Precipitation of 500-800 mm.
Continental climate. t January -15 … -25, t … July 15 26. Precipitation of 200-600 mm.
Sharply continental. t January -25 … -45, t … July 16 20. Rainfall – 500 mm.
Monsoon. t January -15 … -30, t … July 10 20. Precipitation 600-800. mm
In Russia and the former Soviet Union used the classification of the types of climate, established in 1956 by the famous Soviet climatologist B. Alisov . This classification takes into account the peculiarities of atmospheric circulation. According to this classification is distinguished t shirt design by four major climatic zones in each hemisphere of the Earth: equatorial, tropical, temperate and polar (in the northern hemisphere – the Arctic, in the southern hemisphere – the Antarctic). Between the main areas are transitional zones – subequatorial zone, subtropical and subpolar (subarctic and subantarctic). In these climate zones, in accordance with the prevailing circulation of air masses, there are four types of climate: continental, oceanic, the climate of western and eastern shores of the climate.
Equatorial belt
Equatorial climate
Subequatorial belt
The tropical monsoon climate
Tropical monsoon climate on the plateau
Torrid zone
Tropical dry climate
The tropical humid climate
Subtropical Zone
The Mediterranean climate
The subtropical continental climate
The subtropical monsoon climate
The climate is subtropical high uplands
Subtropical oceans
Temperate zone
Temperate maritime climate
Moderate continental climate
A moderate continental climate
Moderate sharply continental climate
Moderate monsoon climate
Subpolar zone
Subarctic climate
Subantarctic climate
Polar Zone: Polar climate
The Arctic Climate
Antarctic climate
In the world of common classification of climates, proposed by Russian scientist Vladimir Keppen (1846-1940). It is based on the regime of temperature and degree of hydration. According to this classification is allocated eight climatic zones, with eleven types of climate. Each type has the exact values of the parameters of temperature , the number of winter and summer rainfall .
Also in climatology , denver martial arts the following concepts related to the characteristics of climate change:
Continental climate
Maritime climate
High mountain climate
Arid climate
Humid Climate
Nival climate
Solar climate
Monsoon climate
Equatorial climate
Methods of cash advance loans study
To identify the characteristics of climate, both typical and rarely observed, requires long-term series of meteorological observations. In temperate latitudes using the 25-50-year-old series, in the tropics, their duration may be less.
Climatic data represent the statistical inference of long-term series of observations of weather, especially on the following Relevant Life Insurance basic elements of weather: air pressure, speed and direction of wind , temperature and humidity , cloudiness and precipitation . Take into account the duration of solar radiation, visibility, temperature of the upper layers of soil and water bodies, water evaporation from the surface into the atmosphere, the height and condition of the snow cover , and various atmospheric phenomena and surface hydrometeors ( dew , ice , fog , thunderstorms , blizzards , etc.) . In the XX century in a number of climatic parameters included characteristic elements of the thermal balance of the earth’s surface, such as total solar radiation , radiation balance, the quantities of heat exchange between the earth’s surface and atmosphere, the heat losses by evaporation.
Long-term average values of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their amount, frequency, and other standards are known as climate, the corresponding values for individual days, months, years, etc. are considered as a deviation from these standards. To characterize the climate are also used complex indices, that is a function of several elements: a variety of factors, factors, indices (eg, continental, dry, wet), etc.
Special rates are applied to the climate of applied fields of climatology (eg, the amount of growing season temperatures in the agroclimatology, the effective temperature in Bioclimatology and technical climate, degree days in the calculation of heating systems, etc.).
For estimates of future climate change is used atmospheric general circulation model ..
climatic factors
latitude (because of the shape of the Earth at different latitudes, the angle of the sun varies, which affects the degree of heating surface and consequently the air);
the underlying surface (the nature of the relief features of the landscape);
air masses (depending on the properties of the VM is determined by the seasonality of precipitation and the state of the troposphere);
solar radiation ;
influence of the oceans and seas (if the area remote from the seas and oceans, the continental climate increases. presence softens the climate near the ocean area, the exception – the presence of cold currents).
There are also:
solar activity, which affects the state of the ozone layer , or simply by the total amount of radiation
change in inclination of the axis of rotation of the Earth ( precession Criminal Defense Attorney Chicago and nutation )
changes in the eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth
changes in the Earth’s core conditions, which entail changes in Earth’s magnetic field
volcanic eruptions
activity of the glaciers
redistribution of gases on the planet
separation of gases and heat from the interior of the planet
change in the reflectivity of the atmospheres
catastrophes such as asteroid strikes
human activity (combustion, emissions of different gases, the development of nuclear energy)
The influence of climate and climate change on natural and human systems
This section of the article has not been written .
According to the concept of one of the participants in the Wikipedia, this place should be placed a special section.
You can help by writing this section.
The doctrine according to which the climate, together with other natural conditions plays a decisive role in the history of nations (forming the national character, especially the social structure, etc.) is called geographic determinism .
The ozone layer
– Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The ozone layer in the atmosphere
Absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer
The ozone layer – part of the stratosphere at an altitude of 12 to 50 km (in the tropical latitudes of 25-30 km , in moderate 20-25 , in the polar 15-20 ), which under the influence of ultraviolet radiation of the Sun molecular oxygen (O 2 ) dissociates into atoms which then combine with other molecules O 2 to form ozone (O 3 ). Relatively high concentrations of ozone (about 8 ml / m ³ ) absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays and protects all living on the land from the harmful radiation. Moreover, if it were not for the ozone layer, life could not even get out of the ocean [1] and highly developed forms of life such as mammals, including humans, would not arise. The highest density of ozone is found at an altitude of 20-25 km , the largest portion of the total – at an altitude of 40 km . If you could remove all the ozone is in the atmosphere and compress under normal pressure, the result would have left a layer covering the surface of the Earth’s thickness of 3 mm . For comparison, all compressed under a normal pressure atmosphere was a layer of 8 km .
Content [ remove ]
A history of the discovery of the ozone layer
2 The mechanism of the Chapman
3 Ways to ozone destruction
4 Notes
5 See also
6 Links
6.1 Articles and reviews
6.2 International Agreements
History of discovery of the ozone layer
Discoverers of the ozone layer was the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson . In 1913 they succeeded with the help of spectroscopic measurements of ultraviolet radiation to prove the existence of ozone in Earth’s distant from the atmosphere.
Mechanism of Chapman
The mechanism of formation and consumption of ozone was proposed by Sydney Chapman in 1930 and bears his name.
The reactions of ozone:
O 2 + H v → 2O.
O 2 + O → O 3 .
Photolysis of molecular oxygen occurs in the stratosphere under the influence of ultraviolet radiation with a wavelength of 175-200 nm and up to 242 nm .
Ozone is consumed in the photolysis reactions and interactions with atomic oxygen:
About 3 + H v → O 2 + O.
About 3 + O → 2O 2 .
Ways to ozone destruction
Stratospheric ozone chemistry
In addition to the reactions occurring in the Chapman mechanism, there are a number of other reactions leading to ozone destruction. They Container Store are all united by a few families, most important of which is nitrogen, oxygen (from the Chapman mechanism), hydrogen and halogen. These reactions constitute a catalytic cycle, so they are also referred to the respective cycles.
Nitrogen cycle (NO x ):
N 2 O + O ( 1 D) → NO + NO,
About 3 + NO → NO 2 + O 2 ,
NO 2 + O → NO + O 2 .
Hydrogen cycle (HO x ):
H 2 O + O → OH + OH,
OH + O 3 → NO 2 + O 2 ,
NO 2 + O 3 → OH + 2O 2 .
Chlorine cycle (ClO x ):
CFCl 3 + H v → CFCl 2 + Cl,
Cl + O 3 → ClO + O 2 ,
ClO + O → Cl + O 2 .
The share of expenditure in the ozone of different chemical families: [2]
Exploring the history of the East Antarctic ice sheet and lithospheric structure of the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains were primary goals of the 2007/2008 International Polar Year (IPY). Scientists from several nations are worked together to launch a flagship program to explore a major mountain range buried by a large continental ice sheet and bounded by numerous subglacial lakes.
After decades of drilling , Russian scientists have finally managed to pierce through Antarctica’s ice sheet to reveal the secrets of a unique sub-glacial lake, Vostok, that has been sealed there for the past 20 million years.It is also rumored that later the submarine U-977 delivered the remains of Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun to Antarctica for DNA cloning purposes.